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Tuesday, July 31, 2007

VITAMINS

The Vitamins are necessary auxiliaries in metabolism. They combine with specific proteins, as parts of various oxidative enzyme systems which are concerned with the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat in the body. Thus, they are intimately involved in the mechanism which releases energy, carbon dioxide and water as the end products of metabolism.

Vitamins can be broadly divided into Fat Soluble and Water Soluble Vitamins. Vitamins A D E and K are fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamins B ( B1 B2 B6 B12 ) and C are water-soluble.
Vitamin - A
Year 1913
Retinol
Main Metabolic Function Essential for normal growth and development.
For normal function of epithelical cells and normal development of teeth and bones.
Prevents Night blindness.
Deficiency - Effects Retarded growth.
Reduced resistance to infection.
Abnormal function of gastrointestinal, and respiratory tracts due to altered epithelial membranes.
Interferes with production of "night purple".
Available Milk, Egg yolk, Ghee, Butter, Carrots, Tomatoes, Leafy and Yellow vegetables, Cod liver oil and Fresh fruits.
Nature Fat-Soluble
Year 1936
Thiamin
Main Metabolic Function An important aid in carbohydrate metabolism.
Needed for Proper functioning of the digestive tract and nervous system.
Beriberi.
Loss of muscle.
Deficiency - Effects Loss of appetite.
Impaired digestion of starches and sugars.
Various nervous disorder coordination.
Available Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature Water-Soluble
Vitamin - B2
Year 1935
Riboflavin
Main Metabolic Function Needed in formation of certain enzymes and in cellular oxidation.
Prevents inflammation of oral mucous membranes and the tongue.
Deficiency - Effects Impaired growth, lassitude and weakness.
Causes cheillosis or glossittis.
May result in Photophobia and cataracts.
Available Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature Water-Soluble
Vitamin - B6
Year 1934
Pyridoxine
Main Metabolic Function Acts as do other B vitamins.
To break down protein, carbohydrate and fat.
Acts as a catalyst in the formation of niacin from tryptophan.
Deficiency - Effects Increased irritability, convulsions and peripheral neuritis.
Anorexia, nausea and vomiting.
Available Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature Water-Soluble
Vitamin - B12
Year 1948
Cyanocobalamin
Main Metabolic Function Essential for development of red blood cells.
Required for maintenance of skin, nerve tissues, bone and muscles.
Deficiency - Effects Results in pernicious anaemia.
Weakness, fatigue, sore and cracked lips.
Available Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature Water-Soluble
Vitamin - C
Year 1919
Ascorbic Acid
Main Metabolic Function Needed for form the cementing substance, collagen, in various tissues (skin, dentine, cartilage and bone matrix).
Assists in woundhealing and bone fractures.
Deficiency - Effects Lowered resistance to infections.
Susceptibility to dental cavities, pyotthea and bleeding gums.
Delayed wound healing.
Specific treatment for Scurvy.
Available Fresh vegetables, Lemon, Orange, Tomatoes, Cabbage , Turnip and Lettuce (Beetroot).
Nature Water-Soluble
Year 1925
Cholecalciferol
Main Metabolic Function Requlates absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestinal tract.
Affords antiachitic activity.
Deficiency - Effects Interferes with utilisation of calcium and phosphorus in bone and teeth formation.
Development of bone disease, rickets and caries.
Available Butter, Milk, Ghee, Cod liver oil, Yolk of Eggs and also in Sunrays.
Nature Fat-Soluble
Vitamin - E
Year 1936
Tocopherols
Main Metabolic Function Protects tissues, cell membranes and Vitamin A against peroxidation.
Helps strengthen red blood cells.
Deficiency - Effects Decreased red blood cell resistance to rupture.
Available Germinating Wheat.
Nature Fat-Soluble
Vitamin - K
Year 1935
Phytomenadione
Main Metabolic Function Essential for formation of normal amounts of prothrombin and blood coagulation.
Deficiency - Effects diminished blood clotting time.
Increased incidence of hemorrhages.
Available Fish, Wheat and Oats.
Nature Fat-Soluble

SOLAR SYSTEM

Pluto Diameter 3,040 Kilometer
Moons 1
Avg.Distance to Sun 5,865.5 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 248 Years
Facts
  1. This Planet is the farthest, the smallest, the darkest, the coldest and arguably the strangest.
  2. It follows the most elongated and tilted orbit in the solar system.
  3. Its moon, Charon, is nearly half its size - appears like a bi-planet.
  4. NASA used a new infra-red telescope, has learned that Pluto is shrouded in frozen nitrogen- not methane as once thought. Nitrogen makes 78% of the air.


Neptune Diameter 49,000 Kilometer
Moons 8
Avg.Distance to Sun 4,497 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 165 Years
Facts
  1. It is denser & little smaller than Uranus.
  2. Its Atmosphere appear blue, with quickly changing white clouds often suspended high above an apparent surface.
  3. Atmosphere constituents are mostly hydrocarbon compounds.
  4. It Emits about 2.3 times more energy than it receives from the sun and the Aurora phenomenon was noticed by Voyager II.


Uranus Diameter 52,096 Kilometer
Moons 17
Avg.Distance to Sun 2,852.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 84 Years
Facts
  1. Waterly Uranus is the only planet that lies on its side.
  2. One pole, than the other, faces the Sun as it orbits.
  3. Voyager-I found nine dark, compact rings around the planet and a corkscrew-shaped magnetic field that stretches millions of kilometers.


Mars Diameter 6,755.2 Kilometer
Moons 2
Avg.Distance to Sun 225.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 687 Days
Facts
  1. The Viking probes failed to Beneath its thin atmosphere.
  2. Mars is barren, covered with pink soil and boulders.
  3. Long ago it was active, the surface is marked with dormant volcanoes and deep chasms where water once freely flowed.


Venus Diameter 12,032 Kilometer
Moons None
Avg.Distance to Sun 107.52 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 225 Days
Facts
  1. Earth's twin in size and mass, sparingly hot Venus is perpetually veiled behind reflective sulfuric-acid clouds.
  2. Probes and radar mapping have pierced the clouds and carbon-dioxide environment to reveal flat, rocky plains & signs of volcanic activity.


Mercury Diameter 4,849.6 Kilometer
Moons None
Avg.Distance to Sun 57.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 88 Days
Facts
  1. Tiny Mercury, slightly larger than Earth's moon.
  2. Races along its elliptical orbital 1,76,000 kilometer per hour.
  3. A speed that keeps it from being drawn into the Sun's gravity field.
  4. The crated planet has no atmosphere, days are scorching hot and nights, frigid.

Earth Diameter 12,732.2 Kilometer
Moons 1
Avg.Distance to Sun 148.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 365 Days
Facts
  1. Uniquely moderate temperature and the presence of oxygen and copious water maker Earth the only planet in the solar system to support life.


Jupiter Diameter 1,41,968 Kilometer
Moons 16
Avg.Distance to Sun 772.8 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 11.9 Years
Facts
  1. Two Pioneer space probes photographed the Great Red Spot on the Solar system's largest planet.
  2. Voyagers I and II later showed it is an enormous eddy in the turbulent cloud cover. Earth the only planet in the solar system to support life.
  3. They also spotted dusty rings, three new moons and volcanoes on the Moon.


Saturn Diameter 1,19,296 Kilometer
Moons 20 or more
Avg.Distance to Sun 1,417.6 million KM
Time to Orbit the Sun 29.5 Years
Facts
  1. Voyager I found that the celebrated rings of the golden giant Saturn are composed of thousands of rippling, spiraling bands just 100 feets thick.
  2. The moon Titan has a nitrogen atmosphere and hydrocarbons.


Sun Diameter 13,84,000 Kilometer
Statellites 9 Planets
Age 4.5 billion years
Facts
  1. A rather ordinary, middle age star, the gaseous sun may reach a temperature of 27-millon degrees Celsius at its core.
  2. Its 11 years cycle is now approaching a solar maximum, a period marked by frequent sunspots and flares.
  3. On Earth, some radio waves will be disturbed and the amazing sky streamers called Northern Lights will appear.

National Surveys and Other Institutions in India

Institution Place
Atomic Energy CommissionBombay
Bhabha Atomic Research CenterTrombay (Bombay)
Botanical Survey of IndiaCalcutta
Birbal Sahni Indtitute for PalaeobotanoyLucknow
Bose Research InstituteCalcutta
Indian Association for the Cultivation of scienceCalcutta
Indian National Science AcademyNew Delhi
Indian National Science Congress Association Calcutta
National Atlas OrganisationCalcutta
Raman Research InstituteBangalore
Survey of IndiaDehra Dun
Wadia Institute of Himalayan ZoologyDelhi
Zoological Survey of IndiaCalcutta

SCIENTIFIC MEASURES

AMPERE:
Unit of electric current. It is approximately equal to the flow of 6 x 1018 electrons per second.

ATOMIC WEIGHT:
The weight of an atom of hydrogen is taken as the standard; the respective weights of the atoms of all other substances are expressed in terms of it. So when it is stated that the atomic weight of iron is 56, it is meant that the atom of iron is 56 times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen.

ANGSTROM:
The unit of wavelength of light is Angstrom. 1 Angstrom = 10-8 cm. There is a bigger unit for measuring the wavelength of infrared light; it is called a milli-micron and is equal to 10-7 cm. Micron =10-4 cm, is a still bigger unit. Bar is the unit of atmospheric pressure; one bar is equal to a pressure of 106 dynes per sq cm.

CALORY
Calory is the unit of heat. It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature or one gram of water through 1 C.

HORSE POWER:
The practical unit of power - the power of an agent which can work at the rate of 550 foot-pounds per second or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 1 HP=746 watts.

JOULE
Joule is the unit of work or energy. It is equal to 107 ergs. It is the energy consumed in one second in an electrical circuit through which a current energy of one ampere is flowing against a potential difference of one volt.

KNOT
Knot is a measure to know the speed of a ship.

LIGHT YEAR:
A light year is the distance light travels in one mean solar year, at speed of 1, 86,000 miles per second. It is equal to 5,880,000,000,000 miles. It is used as a unit for measuring stellar distances.

NAUTICAL MILE:
A unit of distance used in navigation - one minute of longitude measured along the Equator. A Nautical Mile is approximately equal to 6, 080 feet.

PRESSURE:
The pressure is expressed in pounds weight per sq cm. The pressure of the atmosphere is expressed in millibars. One millibar = 1 dyne per sq cm. If the pressure are very high, they are expressed in multiples of atmospheric pressure. 1 atmosphere is a pressure exerted by a column of mercury 76 cm high at sea level and at a latitude of 45 .

QUINTAL:
Metric measure of weight; 100 kilograms = 1 quintal.

VOLT:
The unit of potential difference. It is that much potential difference which when applied to the ends of an electrical conductor of resistance one ohm, the amount of energy consumed in the circuit in one second is one Joule (=107 ergs).

WATT:
Unit of power - the rate of work done in joules per second; the energy expended per second by an unvarying electric current of 1 ampere.

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES

Altimeter is a special type of aneroid barometer, used in measuring altitudes.

Ammeter is an instrument to measure the strength of an electric current.

Anemometer is an instrument to measure the velocity and find the direction of the wind.

Audiometer is an instrument to measure difference in hearing.

Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Binocular is an optical instrument designed for magnified view of distant objects by both eyes simultaneously.

Calorimeter is an instrument for measuring quantities of heat.

Chronometer is a clock to determine longitude of a vessel of sea.

Clinical Thermometer is a thermometer for measuring the temperature of human body.

Calorimeter is an instrument for comparing intensities of colour.

Commutator is an instrument to change of reverse the direction of an electric current. In dynamo used to convert the alternating current into direct current.

Computer is a technical device designed to find instantaneous solutions of huge and complex calculation based on the information already fed.

Dynamo is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of electric charge.

Galvanometer is an instrument for measuring electric current.

Hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of liquids.

Hydrophone is an instrument for measuring sound under water.

Hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere.

Hygroscope is an instrument to show the changes in atmospheric humidity.

Lactometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.

Micrometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring small distances or angles.

Manometer is instrument to measure the pressure of gases.

Magnetometer is an instrument used to compare the magnetic moments and fields,

Mariner's Compass is an apparatus for determining direction, graduated to indicate 33 directions. The "N" point on the dial indicates north pole and the "S" point, south pole.

Microscope is an instrument for magnified view of very small objects.

Periscope is an apparatus for viewing objects lying above the eye level of the observer and whose direct vision is obstructed. It consists of a tube bent twice at right angles and having plane mirrors at these bends inclined at angles of 45 to the tube.

Photometer is an instrument for comparing the luminous intensity of the sources of light.

Planimeter is a mechanical integrating instrument to measure area of a plane surface.

Pyknometer is an instrument used to measure the density and co-efficient of expansion of liquid.

Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring solar radiations.

Pyrometers are thermometers to measure high temperatures.

Quadrant is an instrument for measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy.

Quartz clock is a highly accurate clock used in astronomical observations and other precision work.

Radio micrometer is an instrument for measuring heat radiations.

Rain gauge is an instrument for measuring rainfall.

Refractometer is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a substance.

Resistance thermometer is used for determining the electrical resistance of conductor.

Salinometer is a type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their densities.

Seismograph is an instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks.

Sextant is an instrument used for measurement of angular distances between two objects.

Spectroscope is an instrument used for spectrum analysis.

Spectrometer is a type of spectroscope so calibrated as to make it suitable for the precise measurement of refractive indices.

Spherometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring the curvature of spherical objects.

Sphygmomanometer is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.

Spring balance is used to measure the mass of a body. It is preferred only when quick but approximate determinations are to be carried out.

Stereoscope is an optical device to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity.

Stethoscope is a medical instrument for hearing and analyzing the sound of heart and lungs.

Stroboscope is an instrument used for viewing the objects moving rapidly with a periodic motion and to see them as if they were at rest.

Tangent galvanometer is an instrument for measuring the strength of direct current.

Telemeter is an apparatus for recording physical events happening at a distance.

Teleprinter is a communication medium for automatic sending, receiving and printing of telegraphic message from distant places.

Telescope is an instrument for viewing distant objects as magnified.

Television is an instrument used for transmitting the visible moving images by means of wireless waves.

Thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature.

Thermoscope is used for measuring the temperature change (approximately) of the substances by nothing the corresponding change in volume.

Thermostat is an automatic device for regulating constant tempera-tures.

Transistor is a small device which may be used to amplify currents and perform other functions usually performed by a thermionic value.

Vernier is an adjustable scale with marking of 10 sub-divisions of one-tenth of an inch or any other suitable marking for measuring small sub-divisions of scale.

Viscometer is an instrument for measuring the viscosity, i.e. the property of resistance of a fluid to relative motion within itself.

Voltmeter is an instrument to measure potential difference between two points.

Geographical Terms

ANTIPODES A region or place on the opposite side of a point on the earth.
ANTICYCLONES Winds which blow outward from the center.
APHELION Position of the earth in its orbit when is at the maximum distance from the sun.
ARCHIPELAGO A cluster of islands, e.g., Pearl Islands in the Gulf of Panama.
ATOLL Coral reef resembling a horse shoe, enclosing a lagoon.
AXIS An imaginary line joining north and south poles.
AVALANCHE A vast mass of snow mixed with earth or stones.
BIOSPHERE Animate or inanimate organic kingdom on earth.
CANYON A deep valley cut by a river through a mountain region, e,g., the Grand Canyon of the Colarado river in the USA.
CONTINENTAL SHELF Land adjoining a continent submerged in the sea.
CYCLONES A low pressure system area in which the wind blows spirally inward.
CROP ROTATION Growing different crops needing different minerals for their growth in the same piece of land in order to get more yield.
DATE LINE An imaginary line pointing north-south approximating to the Meridian 180 (east or west) where the date changes by one day the moment it is crossed.
DELTA Alluvial deposit shaped like Greek letter, formed at the mouth of the river, where it falls into the sea, e.g., the Sunderban delta.
DEW Condensed atmospheric water vapours due to the cooling of the air.
DRY FARMING Growing of crops in low rainfall areas by moisture conservation, crop rotation but without irrigation.
EQUATOR An imaginary line dividing the earth into two equal parts.
EQUINOXES The day on which nights and days are of equal duration, e.g., March 22 and September 23.
EROSION Wearing away of the earth's land surface by rain, wind, water, etc. rendering the land infertile.
ECLIPSE When one earthly body obscures another one partially or completely.
FOG When the atmospheric moisture touches cold earth and condenses on dust particles.
FROST When the atmospheric moisture deposits in the shape of icy flakes on the exposed objects or near the ground due to below freezing point temperature.
HIGH SEAS The parts of the sea which do not come under the territorial jurisdiction of the nations.
ICEBERG Huge mass of ice separated from glacier in the polar regions. These masses of ice float in the oceans with 9 parts submerged in the ocean and one part visible.
ISOBARS Lines on the map connecting the places of the same pressure.
ISOTHERMS Lines on the map joining the places of the same temperature.
ISTHMUS Narrow neck of land joining two land areas.
KUNDAN Anew variety of wheat which gives high yields in both rained and irrigated tracts and responds well to low dose of water and fertiliser.
LAGOON A shallow stream of water at the mouth of a river enclosed bu dunes of river silt.
LIGHT YEAR The distance traveled by light in one year. It is equal to 9.4*10612 km.
LOCAL TIME Time calculated from the sun at noon at any place of earth.
MERIDIAN Imaginary line joining north and south poles and cutting the equator at right angles.
MIST It is just like fog but contain more moisture.
OASIS A part of the desert where water and vegetation are found.
ORBIT The path of the heavenly bodies.
PYGMALLION POINT The southernmost point of India, 700 km away from mainland India.
PRAIRIES Smooth, treeless, green plain of Central and North America.
REEF Jutting of rock or shingle or sand at just above or below sea level.
SAVANNA Land covered with natural grass.
SIDEREAL DAY Time taken by the earth to rotate once round its axis.
SNOW LINE Altitudinal line along which the area remains snow clad.
SPRING TIDES Higher tides in the ocean caused by the sun and the moon together. When the sun, the earth and the moon are positioned in a straight line.
NEAP TIDES Tides caused by the differences of the forces exerted by the moon and the sun when both are at right angles to each other.
TORNADO A brisk and violent storm generally having rotator motion.
TUNDRAS Peripheral area of Arctic ocean.
TYCOON Violent hurricane in China Sea.
WEATHER SATELLITE Artificial satellite designed to forecast weather.
WESTERLIES Constant winds blowing from south-west in the northern hemisphere and north-west in south hemisphere.

Aircraft ID Mark

Afghanistan YA
Algeria 7T
Argentina LQ, LV
Australia OE
Bangladesh S2
Belgium OO
Bolivia CP
Brazil PP, PT
Cameroon TJ
Canada C, CF
Chile CC
China B
Colombia HK
Cuba CU
Denmark OY
Egypt SU
Ethiopia ET
Finland OH
France F
Germany D
Greece SX
India VT
Indonesia PK
Iran EP
Iraq YI
Israel 4X
Italy I
Japan JA
Kuwait 9K
Malaysia 9M
Netherlands PH
Pakistan AP
Saudi Arabia HZ
Singapore 9V
South Africa ZS, ZT, ZU
Spain EC
Sri Lanka 4R
UK G
USA N
Venezuela YV
Vietnam VN
Yugoslavia YU
Zaire 9Q, 9T
Zimbabwe Z

SCIENCE TERMINOLOGY

Science is knowledge, often as opposed to intuition, belief, etc. It is, in fact, systematized knowledge derived from observation, study and experimentation carried on in order to determine the nature or principles of what is being studied. There are many sciences, each concerned with a particular field of study. In each science measurement plays an important part. In each science, too, a study is made of the laws according to which objects react. Here are some sciences.

ACOUSTICSThe study of sound (or the science of sound).

ACROBATICS:The art of performing acrobatic feats (gymnastics).

AERODYNAMICS:
(i) The branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of air and other gases.
(ii) The study of the motion and control of solid bodies like aircraft, missiles, etc., in air

AERONAUTICS: The Science or art of flight.

AEROSTATICS:The branch of statics that deals with gases in equilibrium and with gases and bodies in them.

AESTHETICS:The philosophy of fine arts.

AETIOLOGY:The science of causation.

AGROBIOLOGY:The science of plant life and plant nutrition.

AGRONOMICS:The science of managing land or crops.

AGRONOMY:The science of soil management and the production of field crops.

AGROSTOLOGY:The study of grasses.

ALCHEMY:Chemistry in ancient times.

ANATOMY:The science dealing with the structure of animals, plants or human body.

ANTHROPOLOGY:The science that deals with the origins, physical and cultural development of mankind.

ARBORICULTURE:Cultivation of trees and vegetables.

ARCHAEOLOGY:The study of antiquities.

ASTROLOGY:The ancient art of predicting the course of human destinies with the help of indications deduced from the position and movement of the heavenly bodies.

ASTRONAUTICS:The science of space travel.

ASTRONOMY: - The study of the heavenly bodies.

ASTROPHYSICS:The branch of astronomy concerned with the physical nature of heavenly bodies.

BACTERIOLOGY: The study of bacteria.

BIOCHEMISTRY: The study of chemical processes of living things.

BIOLOGY: The study of living things.

BIOMETRY:The application of mathematics to the study of living things.

BIONICS:The study of functions, characteristics and phenomena observed in the living world and the application of this knowledge to the world of machines.

BIONOMICS:The study of the relation of an organism to its environments.

BIONOMY:The science of the laws of life.

BIOPHYSICS:The physics of vital processes (living things).

BOTANY:The study of plants.

CALISTHENICS:The systematic exercises for attaining strength and gracefulness.

CARTOGRAPHY:Science of Map Making.

CERAMICS:The art and technology of making objects from clay, etc. (Pottery).

CHEMISTRY:The study of elementary and their laws of combination and behaviour.

CHEMOTHERAPY:The treatment of disease by using chemical substances.

CHRONOBIOLOGY:The study of the duration of life.

CHRONOLOGY:The science of arranging time in periods and ascertaining the dates and historical order of past events.

CONCHOLOGY:The branch of zoology dealing with the shells of mollusks.

COSMOGONY:The science of the nature of heavenly bodies.

COSMOGRAPHY: The science that describes and maps the main feature of the universe.

COSMOLOGY:The science of the nature, origin and history of the universe.

CRIMINOLOGY:The study of crime and criminals.

CRYTOGRAPHY:The study of ciphers (secret writings).

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY:The study of the structure, forms and properties of crystals.

CRYGENICS:The science dealing with the production, control and application of very low temperatures.

CYTOCHEMISTRY:The branch of cytology dealing with the chemistry of cells.

CYTOGENETICS:The branch of biology dealing with the study of heredity from the point of view of cytology and genetics.

CYTOLOGY:The study of cells, especially their formation, structure and functions.

DACTYLOGRAPHY:The study of fingerprints for the purpose of identification.

DACTYLIOLOGY:The technique of communication by signs made with the fingers. It is generally used by the deaf.

ECOLOGY:The study of the relation of animals and plants to their surroundings, animate and inanimate.

ECONOMETRICS: The application of mathematics in testing economic theories.

ECONOMICS:The science dealing with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

EMBRYOLOGY:The study of development of embryos.

ENTOMOLOGY:The study of insects.

EPIDEMIOLOGY:The branch of medicine dealing with epidemic diseases.

EPIGRAPHY:The study of inscriptions.

ETHICS:Psychological study of moral principles.

ETHNOGRAPHY:A branch of anthropology dealing with the scientific description of individual cultures.

ETHNOLOGY:A branch of anthropology that deals with the origin, distribution and distinguishing characteristics of the races of mankind.

ETHOLOGY:The study of animal behaviour.

ETYMOLOGY:The study of origin and history of words.

EUGENICS:The study of the production of better offspring by the careful selection of parents.

GENEALOGY:The study of family ancestries and histories.

GENECOLOGY:The study of genetical composition of plant population in relation to their habitats.

GENESIOLOGY:The science of generation.

GENETICS:The branch of biology dealing with the phenomena of heredity and the laws governing it.

GEOBIOLOGY:The biology of terrestrial life.

GEOBOTANY:The branch of botany dealing with all aspects of relations between plants and the earth's surface.

GEOCHEMISTRY:The study of the chemical composition of the earth's crust and the changes which take place within it.

GEOGRAPHY:The development of science of the earth's surface, physical features, climate, population, etc.

GEOLOGY:The science that deals with the physical history of the earth.

GEOMEDICINE:The branch of medicine dealing with the influence of climate and environmental conditions on health.

GEOMORPHOLOGY:The study of the characteristics, origin and development of land forms.

GEOPHYSICS:The physics of the earth.

GERONTOLOGY:The study of old age, its phenomena, diseases, etc.

HELIOTHEARPY: The sun cure.

HISTOLOGY:The study of tissues.

HORTICULTURE:The cultivation of flowers, fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants.

HYDRODYNAMICS:The mathematical study of the forces, energy and pressure of liquid in motion.

HYDROGRAPHY:The science of water measurements of the earth with special reference of their use for navigation.

HYDROLOGY:The study of water with reference to its occurrence and properties in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.

HYDROMETALLURGY:The process of extracting metals at ordinary temperature by bleaching ore with liquids.

HYDROPATHY:The treatment of disease by the internal and external use of water.

HYDROPONICS:The cultivation of plants by placing the roots in liquid nutrient solutions rather than in soil.

HYDROSTATICS: The mathematical study of forces and pressure in liquids.

HYGIENE:The science of health and its preservation.

LCONOGRAPHY:Teaching with the aid of pictures and models.

LCONOLOGY:The study of symbolic representations.

JURISPRUDENCE:The science of law.

LEXICOGRAPHY:The writing or compiling of dictionaries.

MAMMOGRAPHY:Radiography of the mammary glands.

METALLOGRAPHY:The study of the crystalline structures of metals and alloys.

METALLURGY:The process of extracting metals from their ores.

METEOROLOGY:The science of the atmosphere and its phenomena.

METROLOGY:The scientific study of weights and measures.

MICROBIOLOGY:The study of minute living organisms, including bacteria, molds and pathogenic protozoa.

MOLECCULAR BIOLOGY:The study of the structure of the molecules which are of importance in biology.

MORPHOLOGY:The science of organic forms and structures.

MYCOLOGY:The study of fungi and fungus diseases.

NEUROLOGY:The study of the nervous system, its functions and its disorders.

NEUROPATHOLOGY:The study of diseases of the nervous system.

NUMEROLOGY:The study of numbers. The study of the date and year of one's birth and to determine the influence on one's future life.

NUMISMATICS:The study of coins and medals.

ODONTOGRAPHY:A description of the teeth.

ODONTOLOGY:The scientific study of the teeth.

OPTICS:The study of nature and properties of light.

ORNITHOLOGY:The study of birds.

ORTHOEPY:The study of correct pronunciation.

ORTHOPEDICS:The science of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases and abnormalities of musculoskeletal systems.

OSTEOLOGY:The study of the bones.

OSTEOPATHOLOGY:Any disease of bones.

OSTEOPATHY:A therapeutic system based upon detecting and correcting faulty structure.

PALEOBOTANY:The study of fossil plants.

PALEONTOLOGY:The study of fossils.

PALYNOLOGY:The pollen analysis.

PATHOLOGY:The study of diseases.

PEDAGOGY:The art or method of teaching.

PHARYNGOLOGY:The science of the pharynx and its diseases.

PHENOLOGY:The study of periodicity phenomena of plants.

PHILATELY:The collection and study of postage stamps, revenue stamps, etc.

PHILOLOGY:The study of written records, their authenticity, etc.

PHONETICS:The study of speech sounds and the production, transmission, reception, etc.

PHOTOBIOLOGY:The branch of biology dealing with the effect of light on organisms.

PHENOLOGY:The study of the faculties and qualities of minds from the shape of the skull.

PHTHISIOLOGY:The scientific study of tuberculosis.

PHYCOLOGY:The study of algae.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE:The study of natural laws and processes other than those peculiar to living matters, as in physics, chemistry and astronomy.

PHYSICS:The study of the properties of matter.

PHYSIOGRAPHY:The science of physical geography.

PHYSIOLOGY:The study of the functioning of the various organs of living beings.

PHYTOGENY:Origin and growth of plants.

POMOLOGY:The science that deals with fruits and fruit growing.

PSYCHOLOGY:The study of human and animal behaviour.

RADIO ASTRONOMY:The study of heavenly bodies by the reception and analysis of the radio frequency electromagnetic radiations which they emit or reflect.

RADIOBIOLOGY:The branch of biology which deals with the effects of radiations on living organisms.

RADIOLOGY:The study of X-rays and radioactivity.

RHEOLOGY:The study of the deformation and flow of matter.

SEISMOLOGY:The study of earthquakes and the phenomena associated with it.

SELENOLOGY:The scientific study of moon, its nature, origin, movements, etc.

SERICULTURE:The raising of silk worms for the production of raw silk.

SOCIOLOGY:The study of human society.

SPECTROSCOPE:The study of matter and energy by the use of spectroscope.

TELEOLOGY:These study of the evidences of design or purpose in nature.

TELEPATHY:Communication between minds by some means other than sensory perception.

THERAPEUTICS:The science and art of healing.

TOPOGRAPHY:A special description of a part or region

TAXICOLOGY:The study of poisons.

VIROLOGY:The study of viruses.

ZOOLOGY:The study of animal life.

IMPORTANTS OF LAWS AND PRINCIPALS

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE:
When a body is immersed either wholly or partially in a fluid at rest, the apparent loss of weight suffered by it is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

AVOGADRO's LAW:
Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.

BLACK BODY RADIATION:
A black body absorbs heat or radiates heat more quickly than any other body.

BOILING POINT:
It increases with the increase of pressure. The presence of impurities also raises the boiling point of a liquid.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
A body will remain at rest only if the vertical line through the centres of gravity passes through the base of support of the body.

COULOMB'S LAW:
The force between the two electric charges reduces to a quarter of its former value when the distance between them is doubled.

FARADAY'S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS:
The amount of chemical change during electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed. The masses of substances liberated or deposited by the same quantity of electric charge are proportional to their chemical equivalents.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER:
In chemical changes, matter is neither created nor destroyed. The sum total of the masses of all the products of a chemical change is exactly equal to the sum total of the substances from which these products have been formed.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS:
The amount of heat given to a system is equal to the sum of the increase in the internal energy of the system and the external work done. It is impossible to construct a continuous self-acting machine that can pump heat energy from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature.

LENZ'S LAW:
When an electric current is induced by a change in magnetic field, the induced current is always in such a direction that its magnetic field opposes the change of field which causes the induction.

MASS - ENERGY EQUATION:
E = mc2, where E = quantity of energy released from the annihilation of matter of mass 'm', c = velocity of light. It implies that mass and energy are interchangeable.

NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING:
The rate at which a body cools or loses its heat to its surroundings is proportional to the excess of mean temperature of the body over that of the surroundings, provided this temperature excess is not too large.

NEWTON'S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION:
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force, directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION:
Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by a force [called Law of Inertia].

The rate of change of momentum of a moving body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of the force. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

OHM'S LAW:
The amount of current flowing in an electric circuit is governed by the voltage of the battery on dynamo which powers it. In other words, the current through a conductor is directly proportional the potential difference across the conductor and inversely proportional to its resistance.

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT:
Light travels in a straight line. Total internal reflection takes place when a ray of light tries to pass from a denser medium to a rarer medium at an angle of incidence more than the critical angle.

Nobel Prize Winners - Economics

Year Name Country
1969 Ragnar Frisch
Jan Tinbergen
Norwegian
Dutch
1970 Paul A.Samuelson U.S.
1971 Simon Kuznets U.S.
1972 Kenneth J. Arrow
John R. Hicks
U.S.
Britain
1973 Wassily Leontief U.S.
1974 Gunnar Myrdal
Friedrich A.von Hayek
Sweden
Australia
1975 Tjalling Koopmans
Leonid Kantorovich
Dutch-U.S
USSR
1976 Milton Friedman U.S.
1977 Bertil Ohlin
James E. Meade
Swedish
Britain
1978 Herbert A. Simon U.S.
1979 Theodore W. Schultz
Sir Arthur Lewis
U.S.
Britain
1980 Lawrence R. Klein U.S.
1981 James Tobin U.S.
1982 George J. Stigler U.S.
1983 Gerard Debreu France - U.S.
1984 Richard Stone Britain
1985 Franco Modigliani Italy - U.S.
1986 James M.Buchanan U.S.
1987 Robert M. Solow U.S.
1988 Maurice Allais France
1989 Trygve Haavelmo Norway
1990 Harry M. Markowitz William F. Sharpe, Merton H. Miller U.S.
1991 Ronald H.Coase Britain - U.S
1992 Gary S.Becker U.S.
1993 Robert W. Fogel, Douglass C. North U.S.
1994 John C. Harsanyi, John F. Nash U.S.
1995 Robert W. Fogel, Douglass C.Norht U.S.
1996 James A. Mirrlees
William Vickrey
Uk
Canada
1997 Robert C. Merton, Myron S.Scholes U.S.
1998 Amarty Sen India
1999 Robert Mundell Canada
2000 James J. Heckman
Daniel L. McFadden
USA
USA
2001 George A. Akerlof
A. Michael Spence
Joseph E. Stiglitz
USA
USA
USA
2002 Daniel Kahneman
Vernon L. Smith
USA
USA

Nobel Prize Winners-Medicine & Physiology

Year Name Country
1901 Emil A. Von Behring Germany
1902 Sir Ronald Ross Britain
1903 Niels R. Finsen Danish
1904 Ivan P. Pavlov Russia
1905 Robert Koch Germany
1906 Camillo Golgi
Santiago Ramon Y Cajal
Italy
Spain
1907 Charles L.A. Laveran France
1908 Paul Ehrlich
Elie Metchnikoff
Germany
France
1909 Emil T. Kocher Switzerland
1910 Albrecht Kossel Grmany
1911 Allvar Gullstrand Sweden
1912 Alexis Carrel France
1913 Charles R. Richet France
1914 Robert Barany Australia
1919 Jules Border Belgium
1920 Schack A.S.Krogh Dan
1922 Archibald V. Hill
Otto F. Meyerhof
Britain
Germany
1923 Frederick G. Banting
John J.R.Macleod
Canada
Scotland
1924 willem Einthoven Dutch
1926 Johannes A.G Fibiger Dan
1927 JUllius Wagner-Jauregg Australia
1928 Charles J.H. Nicolle France
1929 Christiaan Eijkman
Sir Frederick G.Hopkings
Dutch
Britain
1930 Karl Landsteiner U.S
1931 Otto H. Warburg Germany
1932 Edgar D. Adrian, Sir Charles S. Sherrington Britain
1933 Thomas H.organ U.S.
1934 George R. Minot, William P. Murphy, G.H. Whipple U.S.
1935 Hans Spemann Germany
1936 Sir Henry H. Dale
Otto Lowei
Britain
U.S.
1937 Albert Szent-Gyorgyl Honkong-U.S.
1938 Cornelle J.F. Heymans Belgium
1939 Gerhard Domagk Germany
1943 Henrik C.P. Dam
Edward A. Doisy
Dan
U.S.
1944 Joseph Erlanger, Herbert S.Gasser U.S.
1945 Ernst B. Chain Sir Alexander Fleming, Sir Howard W. Florey Britain
1946 Hermann J.Muller U.S.
1947 Carl F.Cori, Gerty T. Cormboth
Bernardo A. Houssay
U.S.
Aregentina
1948 Paul H. Muller Switzweland
1949 Walter R. Hess, Switzerland
1950 Philip S. Hench, Edward C. Kendall
Tadeus reichstein
U.S.
Switzerland
1951 Max Theiler U.S
1952 Selman A. Waksman U.S.
1953 Hans A. Krebs
Fritz A. Lipmann
Britain
U.S.
1954 John F.Enders, Frederick C. Robbins, Thomas H. Weller U.S
1955 AlexH.T Theorell Sweden
1956 Andre F. Coumand,Dickinson W.Richards Jr.
Wener Forssmann
U.S.
Germany
1957 Daniel Bovet Italy
1958 George W. Beadle, Edward L. Tatum, Joshua Lederberg U.S.
1959 Arthur Kornberg, Severo Ochoa U.S.
1960 Sir F MacFarlane Bument
Peter B. Medawar
Australia
Britain
1961 Georg von Bekesy U.S.
1962 Francis H.C.rick, Maurice H.F. Wilkins
James D. Wastson
Britain
U.S.
1963 Sir John C.Eccles
Alan L. Hodgkin, Andrew F. Huxley
Australia
Britain
1964 Konard E.Bloch
Feodor Letnen
U.S
Germany
1965 Francois Jacob, Andre Lwoff, Jsvquew Monod France
1966 Charles B. Huggins, Francis Peyton Rous U.S.
1967 Ragnar Granit
Haldan Keffer Hartline, George Wals
Sweden
U.S.
1968 Robert W. Holly, Marshall W. Nirenberg
H. Gobind Khorana
U.S.
Indian U.S. citizen
1969 Max Delbruck, Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador Luria U.S.
1970 Julius Axelrod
Sir Bernard Katz
Ulfvon Euler
U.S.
Britain
Sweden
1971 Earl W. Sutherland Jr. U.S.
1972 Gerald M. Edelman,
Rodney R.Porter
U.S.
Britain
1973 Karl Von Frisch
Konrad Lorenz
Nikolass Tinbergen
Geramny
Germany-Australia
Britain
1974 Albert Claude, Lux
George Emil Palade
Christian Rene De Duve
U.S.
Rom-U.S.
Belgium
1975 Davidaltimore, Howard Temin
Renato Dulbecco
U.S.Italy-U.S
1976 Baruch S.Blumberg, Daniel Carleton Gajdusek U.S.
1977 Rosalyn S. Yalow, Roger C.L. Guilemin, Andrew V. Schaly U.S.
1978 Daniel Nathans, Hamilton O.Smith
Werner Arber
U.S.
Switzerland
1979 Alian M. Cormack
Geoffrey N. Hounsfield
U.S.
Britain
1980 Baruj Benacerraf, George Snell
Jean Dausset
U.S
France
1981 Roger W. Sperry, David H. Hubel, Tosten N. Wisel U.S.
1982 Sune Bergstrom, Bengt Samuelsson
John R.Vane
Sweden
Britan
1983 Barbara McClintock U.S.
1984 Cesar Milstein,
Georges J.F. Koehler
Niels K. Jerne,
Britain-Argentina
Germany
Britain
1985 Michael S. Brown, Joseph L. Goldstein U.S.
1986 Rita Levi-Montalcini
Stanley Cohen
Italy-U.S.
U.S.
1987 Susumu Tonegawa Japan
1988 Gertrude B. Elion, GEorge H. Hitchings
Sir James Black
U.S.
Britain
1989 J. Michael Bishop, Harold E. Varmus U.S.
1990 Joseph E. Murray,E. Donnall Thomas U.S.
1991 Edwin Neher, Beryt Sakmann Germany
1992 Edmond H. Fisher, Edwin G. Krebs
Stanley Cohen
U.S.
1993 Philip A.Sharp
Richard J. Roberts
U.S.
Britain
1994 Alfred Q. Gilman, Martin Rodbell U.S.
1995 Edward Lewis, Eric Wieschaus
Christiane Nusslein Volhard
U.S.
Germany
1996 Peter Doherty
Rolf Zinkernagel
Australia
Switzerland
1997 Staneley Prusiner U.S.
1998 Robert F.Furchgott, Louis J.Ignarro, Ferid Murad U.S.
1999 Guenter Blobel USA
2000 Dr.Arvid Carlsson
Dr.Paul Greengard
Dr.Eric Kandel
Sweden
U.S
U.S
2001 Leland H. Hartwell
Tim Hunt
Sir Paul Nurse
USA
UK
UK
2002 Sydney Brenner
H. Robert Horvitz
John E. Sulston
UK
USA
UK

Nobel Prize Winners - Literature

Year Name Country
1901 Rene F.A. Sully Prudhomme Franch
1902 Theodor Mommsen Germany
1903 Bjornsterne Bjornson Norway
1904 Frederic Mistral
Jose Echegaray
Franch
Spain
1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz Poland
1906 Giosue Carducci Italy
1907 Rudyard Kipling Britain
1908 Rudolf C. Eucken Germany
1909 Selma Lagerlof Sweden
1910 Paul J.L.Heyse Germany
1911 Maurice Maeterlinck Belgium
1912 Gerhart Hauptmann Germany
1913 Rabindranath Tagore India
1915 Romain Rolland France
1916 Verner von Heidenstam Sweden
1917 Karl A. Gjellerup, Henrik Pontoppidan Danish
1919 Carl F.G. Spitteler Switzerland
1920 Kunt Hamsun Norway
1921 Anatolle France France
1922 Jacinto Benavente Spanish
1923 William Butker Iran
1924 Wladyslaw S. Reymont Poland
1925 George Bernard Shaw Iran-Britain
1926 Grazia Deledda Itally
1927 Henri Bergson France
1928 Sigrid Undset Norway
1929 Thomas Mann German
1930 Sinclair Lewis U.S.
1931 Erik A. Karlfeldt Sweden
1932 John Galsworthy Britain
1933 Ivan A. Bunin USSR
1934 Luigi Pirandello Italy
1936 Eugene O'Neill U.S.
1937 Roger Martin de Gard France
1938 Pearl S.Buck U.S.
1939 Frans E. Sillanpa Finnish
1944 Johannes V. Jensen Danish
1945 Gabriels Mistral Chilean
1946 Hermann Hesse Switzwerland
1947 Andre Gide France
1948 T.S.Eliot Britain
1949 william Fauljner U.S.
1950 Bertrand Russell Britain
1951 RarF.Lagerkvist Sweden
1952 Francois Mauriac France
1953 Sir Winston Churchill Britain
1954 Ernest Hemingway U.S.
1955 Halldor K. Laxness Icelandic
1956 Juan Ramon Jimenez Spain
1957 Albert Camus France
1958 Boris L.Pasternak USSR
1959 Salvatore Quasimodo Italy
1960 Saint-John Perse France
1961 Ivo Andric Yugoslavia
1962 John Steinbeck U.S.
1963 Giorgos Seferis
1964 Jean Paul Sartre France
1965 Mikhail Sholokhov USSR
1966 Samuel Joseph Agnon
Nelly Sachs
Isreal
Sweden
1967 Muguel Angel Asturias Guate
1968 Yasunari Kawabata Japan
1969 Samuel Beckett Iran
1970 Aleksandr I. Solzhenisyn USSR
1971 Pablo Neruda Chilean
1972 Heinrich Boll West Germany
1973 Patrick White Austral
1974 Eyvind Johnson, Harry Edmund Martinson Sweden
1975 Eugenio Montale Italy
1976 Saul Bellow U.S.
1977 Vicente Aleixandre Spain
1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer U.S.
1979 Odysseus Elytis Gk
1980 Czerslaw Milosz Poland-U.S.
1981 Elias Canetti Bulgium-Britain
1982 Gabriel HGarcia Marquez Colombian-Mexico
1983 William Golding Britain
1984 Jaroslav Siefert Czech
1985 Claude Simon France
1986 Wole Soyinka Nigerian
1987 Joseph Brodsky USSR-U.S.
1988 Naguib Mahfouz England
1989 Camilo Jose Cela Spain
1990 Octavio Paz Mexico
1991 Nadine Gordimer South Africa
1992 Derek Walcott West India
1993 Toni Morrison U.S.
1994 Kenzaburo Oe Japan
1995 Seamus Heaney Iran
1996 Wislawa zymorska Poland
1997 Dario Fo Italy
1998 Jose Saramago Portugal
1999 Gunter Grass Germany
2000 Gao Xingjian China
2001 V.S. Naipaul
2002 Imre Kertész

Nobel Prize Winners Physics

Year Name Nations
1901 Wilhelm C.Roentgen Germany
1902 Hendrik A.Lorentz & Pieter Zeeman Dutch
1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie France
1904 John W. Strutt, Lord Rayleigh Britain
1905 Philipp E.A.Von Lenard Germany
1906 Sir. Joseph J.Thomson Britain
1907 Albert A.Michelson U.S
1908 Gabriel Lippmann Franch
1909 Carl F. Braun
Guglielmo Marconi
Germany
Italy
1910 Johannes D. Van der Waals Dutch
1911 Wilhelm Wien Germany
1912 Nils G. Dalen Sweden
1913 Heike kamerlingh Onnes Dutch
1914 Max von Laue Germany
1915 Sir William H. Bragg, Sir William H. Bragg Britain
1917 Charles G. Barkla Britain
1918 Max K.E.L. Planck Germany
1919 Johnnes Stark Germany
1920 Charles E.Guillaume France
1921 Albert Einstein Germany - U.S.
1922 Niels Bohr Danish
1923 Robert A. Millikan U.S
1924 Karl M.G. Siegbahn Sweden
1925 James Franck, Gustav Hertz Germany
1926 Jean B. Perrin France
1927 Arthur H.Compton
Charles T.R Wilson
U.S
Britain
1928 Owen W. Richardson Britain
1929 Prince Louis-victor de Broglie France
1930 Sir Chandrasekhara V. Raman India
1932 Werner Heisenberg Germany
1933 Paul A.M. Dirac
Erwin Schrodinger
Britain
Australia
1935 Sir James Chadwick Britain
1936 Carl D. Anderson
Victor F. Hess
U.S
Australia
1937 Cliton J. Davisson
Sir Geroge P. Thomson
U.S.
Britain
1938 Enrico Fermi Italy
U.S
1939 Ernest O. Lawrence U.S.
1943 Otto Stern U.S
1944 Isidor Issac Rabi U.S.
1945 Wolfgang Pauli U.S
1946 Percy Williams Bridgman U.S.
1947 Sir Edward V. Appleton Britain
1948 Patrick M.S.Blackett Britain
1949 Hideki Yukawa Japan
1950 Cecil f. Powell Britain
1951 Sir John D. Cockroft
Ernest T.S.Walton
Britain
Iran
1952 Felix Bloch
Edward M. Purcell
U.S
1953 Frits Zernike Dutch
1954 Max Born
Walter Bothe
Britain
Germany
1955 Polykarp Kusch,
Willis E.Lamb
U.S
1956 John Bardeen
Walter H. Brattain
William Shockley
U.S
1957 Tsung-dao-Lee
Chenning Yang
U.S
1958 Pavel Cherenkov
Ilya Frank,
Igor Y. Tamm
USSR
1959 Owen Chamberlain
Emilio G.Segre
U.S
1960 Donald A. Glaser U.S
1961 Robert Hofstadter
Rudolf L. Mossbauer
U.S
Germany
1962 Lev. D. Landau USSR
1963 Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Eugene P. Wigner
J. Hans D. Jensen
U.S

Germany
1964 Nikolai G. Basov, aleksander M. Prochorov
Charles H. Townes
USSR
U.S
1965 Richard P. Feynman Julian S. Schwinger
Shinichiro Tomonaga
U.S
Japan
1966 Alfred Kastler Franch
1967 Hans A. Bethe U.S
1968 Luis W. Alvarez U.S
1969 Murray Gell-Mann U.S
1970 Louis Neel,br>Hammes Alfven France
Switzerland
1971 Dennis Gabor Britain
1972 John Bardeen
Leon N. Cooper
John R. Schrieffer
U.S
1973 Ivar Giaever
Leo Esaki
Vrian D. Josephson
U.S
Japan
Britain
1974 Martin Ryle, Antony Hewish Britain
1975 James Rainwater
Ben Mottelson
Aage Bohr
U.S
U.S-Danish
Danish
1976 Burton Richter
Samuel C.C Ting
U.S
1977 John H.Van Vleck,Philip W. Anderson
Nevill F. Mott
U.S
Britain
1978 Pyotr Kapitsa
Arno Penzias, Robert Wilson
USSR
U.S
1979 steven Weinberg, Sheldon L. Glashow
Abdus Salam
U.S
Pakistan
1980 James W. Cronin
Val L. fitch
U.S
1981 Nicolass Bloembergen, Arthur Schaalow
Kai M.Siegbahn
U.S
Sweden
1982 Kenneth G. Wilson U.S
1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
William a. Fowler
Indian U.S Citizen
U.S
1984 Carlo Rubbia
Simonvan der Meer
Italy
Dutch
1985 Klaus von Klitzing West Germany
1986 Ernest Ruska,br>Gerd Binnig
Heinrich Rohrer
Germany
West Germany
Swiss
1987 K.Alex Muller
J. Georg Bednorz
Switzerland
West Germany
1988 Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Jack Steinberger U.S
1989 Norman F. Ramsey
Hans G. Dehmelt
Wo9lfgang Paul
U.S.
Grmany-U.S.
Germany
1990 Richard E. Taylor
Jerome I. Griedman, Hendry W.Kendall
Canada
U.S
1991 Pierre - Giles de Gennes France
1992 Georges Charpak Poland - France
1993 Joseph H. Taylor, Russell A. Hulse U.S.
1994 Bertram N. Brockhouse
Clifford G. Shull
Canada
U.S
1995 Martin L. Perl of Standfrod University and Frederick Reins of the University of California Switzerland
U.S.
1996 David M.Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff, Robert C.Richardson U.S
1997 Steven Chu, William D. Phillips
Claude Cohen Tannoudji
U.S.
France
1998 Prof. Robert B. Laughlin, Prof Horst L. Stormer, Prof. Daniel C. Tsui U.S
1999 Gerardus T. Hooft, Martinus J.D. Veltman Netherland
2000 Mr.Zhores I.Alferov
Herbert Kroemer
Jack Kilby
Russia
German
2001 Eric A. Cornell
Wolfgang Ketterle
Carl E. Wieman
USA
German
USA
2002 Raymond Davis Jr.
Riccardo Giacconi
Masatoshi Koshiba
USA
USA
Japan

Nobel Prize Winners - Chemistry

Year Name Country
1901 Jacobus H. Vant's Hoff Dutch
1902 Emil fischer Germany
1903 Svante A. Arrhenius Sweden
1904 Sir William Ramsay Britain
1905 Adolf von Beayer Germany
1906 Henri Moissan France
1907 Eduard Buchner Germany
1908 Ernest Rutherford Britain
1909 Wilhelm Ostwald Germany
1910 Otto Wallach Germany
1911 Marie Curie Poland
Franch
1912 Victor Grignard, Paul Sabatier Franch
1913 Alfred Werner Switzerland
1914 Theodore W. Richards U.S
1915 Richard M. Willstatter Germany
1918 Fritz Haber Germany
1920 Walther H. Nernst Germany
1921 Frederick Soddy Britain
1922 Francis W. Aston Britain
1923 Fritz Pregl Australia
1925 Richard A. Zsigmondy Germany
1926 theodor Svedberg sweden
1927 Heinrich O. Wieland Germany
1928 Adolf O. R. Windaus Germany
1929 Sir Arthur Harden
Han von Euler-Chelpin
Britain
Sweden
1930 Hans Fischer Germany
1931 Friedrich Berguis, Karl Bosch Germany
1932 Irving Langmuir U.S
1934 Harold C. Urey U.S
1935 Frederic Joliot-Curie, Irene Joliot Curie Franch
1936 Peter J.W. Debyr Dutch
1937 Walter N. Haworth
Paul Karrer
Britain
Swistzerland
1938 Richard Kuhn Germany
1939 Adolf F.J. Butenandt
Leopold Ruzicka
Britain
switzerland
1943 Georg de Hevesy Hungary
1944 Otto Hahn Germany
1945 Artturi I, Virtanen Finnish
1946 James B. Summer, John H.Northrop, Wendell M. Stanley U.S
1947 Sir Robert Robinson Britain
1948 Arne W.K. Tiselius Sweden
1949 William F. Giauque Switzerland
1950 Kurt Alder, Otto P.H. Diels Germany
1951 Edwin M. McMillan, Glenn T. Seaborg U.S
1952 Archer J.P. Martin, Richard L.M. Synjge U.S
1953 Hermann Staudinger Germany
1954 Linus C. Pauling U.S
1955 Vincent du Vigneaud U.S
1956 Sir Cyril N. Hinshelwood,
Nikolai N. Semenov
Britain
USSR
1957 Sir Alexander R. Todd Britain
1958 Frederick Sanger Britain
1959 Jarpslav Heyr9vsky Czech
1960 Willard F. Libby U.S
1961 Melvini calvin U.S
1962 John C. Kendrew, Max F. Perutz Britain
1963 Giulio Natta
Kal Ziegler
Italy
Germany
1964 Dorothy C. Hodgkin Britain
1965 Robert B. Woodward U.S.
1966 Robert S.Mulliken U.S
1967 Manfred Eigen
Ronald G. W.Norrish, George Porter
Germany
Britain
1968 Lars Onsager U.S
1969 Derek H.R. Barton
Odd Hassel
Britain
Norway
1970 Luis F. Leloir
1971 Gerhard Herzberg Canada
1972 Chriistian B. Aninsen, Stanford Moore, William H.Stein U.S
1973 Ernst Otto Fischer
Geoffrey Wilkinson
West Germany
Britain
1974 Paul J. Flory U.S
1975 John Cornforth, Austral
Vladimir Prelog, Yugo
Britain
Switzerland
1976 William N. Lipscomb U.S
1977 Ilya Prigogine Belgium
1978 Peter Mitchell Britain
1979 Herbert C. Brown
Geroge Wittig
Britain
U.S.
Germany
1980 Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert
Frederick Sanger
U.S
U.K
1981 Kenichi Fukui
Roald Hoffmann
Japan
U.S.
1982 Aaron Klug South Africa
1983 Henry Tabue Canada
1984 Bruce Merrifield U.S
1985 Herbert A. Hauptman, Jerome Karle U.S
1986 Dudley Herchbach, Yuan T. Lee,
John C. Polanyi
U.S.
Canada
1987 Donald J. Cram, Charles J. Pepdersen
Jean-Marie Lehn
Britain
U.S.
French
1988 Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel West Germany
1989 Thomas R. Cech, Sidney Altman Britain
U.S
1990 Elias James Corey U.S
1991 Richard R. Ernst Switzerland
1992 RudolphA. Marcus Canada, U.S
1993 Kary B. Mullis Michael Smith U.S.
Britain-Canada
1994 George A.Olah U.S
1995 Paul Crutzeen
Mario Molina, F. Sherwood Roland
Netherland
U.S
1996 Robert Curl Jr., Richard Smallery
Sir Harold Kroto
U.S.
britain
1997 Paul Boyer
John Walker
Dane Jensskou
U.S
Britain
Denmark
1998 Dr.Walter Kohn
Dr. John A. Pople
Australia-U.S
Britain-U.S
1999 Ahmed Zewail USA
2000 Alan Heeger
Alan G. Macidiarmid
Hideki Shirakawa
USA
USA
Japan
2001 William S. Knowles
Ryoji Noyori
K. Barry Sharpless
USA
Japan
USA
2002 John B. Fenn
Koichi Tanaka
Kurt Wüthrich
USA
Japan
Switzerland
 
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